A Guide to Critical Reading: What are the Reasons?

Reasons provide answers for our human curiosity about why someone makes a particular decision or holds a particular opinion.

Every class should conclude with student evaluations. 
A pig is smarter than a mule. 
Employers should be able to fire any employee who refuses to take a drug test.

Those three claims are each missing something. We may or may not agree with them, but in their current form they are neither weak nor strong. None of the claims contains an explanation or rationale for why we should agree. Thus, if we heard someone make one of those three assertions, we would be left hungry for more.

What is missing is the reason or reasons responsible for the claims. Reasons are beliefs, evidence, metaphors, analogies, and other statements offered to support or justify conclusions. They are the statements that together form the basis for creating the credibility of a conclusion. "What are the Issue and Conclusion" gave you some guidelines for locating two very important parts of the structure of an argument—the issue and the conclusion. This chapter focuses on techniques for identifying the third essential element of an argument -- the reasons.

When a writer has a conclusion she wants you to accept, she must present reasons to persuade you that she is right and to show you why.

It is the mark of a rational person to support her beliefs with adequate proof, especially when the beliefs are of a controversial nature. For example, when someone asserts that we should exclude inexperienced lawyers from representing those charged with felonies, this assertion should be met with the challenge, "Why do you say that?" You should raise this question whether you agree or disagree.

The person's reasons may be either strong or weak, but you will not know until you have asked the question and identified the reasons. If the answer is "because I think so," you should be dissatisfied with the argument, because the "reason" is a mere restatement of the conclusion. However, if the answer is evidence concerning serious mistakes made by inexperienced lawyers in felony cases, you will want to consider such evidence when you evaluate the conclusion. Remember: You cannot determine the worth of a conclusion until you identify the reasons.


Identifying reasons is a particularly important step in critical thinking. An opinion cannot be evaluated fairly unless we ask why it is held and get a satisfactory response. Focusing on reasons requires us to remain open to and tolerant of views that might differ from our own. If we reacted to conclusions rather than to reasoning, we would tend to stick to the conclusions we brought to the discussion or essay, and those conclusions that agree with our own would receive our rapid assent. If we are ever to re-examine our own opinions, we must remain curious, open to the reasons provided by those people with opinions that we do not yet share.

Critical Question: What are the reasons

Reasons + Conclusion = Argument


In ordinary conversation, an argument refers to a disagreement, a time when blood pressure soars. We will use the concept in a very different manner. An argument is a combination of two forms of statements: a conclusion and the reasons allegedly supporting it. The partnership between reasons and conclusion establishes a person's argument. It is something we provide because we care about how people live their lives and what they believe. Our continual improvement depends on someone's caring enough about us to offer us arguments and to evaluate the ones we make. Only then will we be able to develop as thoughtful people.

Sometimes, an argument will consist of a single reason and a conclusion; often, however, several reasons will be offered to support the conclusion. So when we refer to someone's argument, we might be referring to a single reason and its related conclusion or to the entire group of reasons and the conclusion it is intended to substantiate.

Attention: Reasons are explanations or rationales for why we should believe a particular conclusion.

As we use the terms, argument and reasoning mean the same thing—the use of one or more ideas to support another idea. Thus when a communication lacks reasons, it is neither an argument nor an example of reasoning. Consequently, only arguments and reasoning can be logically flawed. Because a reason by itself is an isolated idea, it cannot reflect a logical relationship.

Several characteristics of arguments grab our attention:

• They have intent. Those who provide them hope to convince us to believe certain things or act in certain ways. Consequently, they call for a reaction. We can imitate the sponge or the gold prospector, but we ordinarily must respond somehow.
• Their quality varies. Critical thinking is required to determine the extent of quality in an argument.
• They have two essential visible components—a conclusion and reasons. Failure to identify either component destroys the opportunity to evaluate the argument. We cannot evaluate what we cannot identify.

That last point deserves some repetition and explanation. There is little purpose in rushing critical thinking. In fact, the philosopher Wittgenstein suggests that when one bright person addresses another, each should first say "Wait! " Taking the time to locate arguments before we assess what we think was said is only fair to the person providing the argument.

Initiating the Questioning Process

The first step in identifying reasons is to approach the argument with a questioning attitude, and the first question you should ask is a why question. You have identified the conclusion; now you wish to know why the conclusion makes sense. If a statement does not answer the question, "Why does the writer or speaker believe that?" then it is not a reason. To function as a reason, a statement (or group of statements) must provide support for a conclusion.

Let us apply the questioning attitude to the following paragraph. First we will find the conclusion; then we will ask the appropriate why question. Remember your guidelines for finding the conclusion. (The indicator words for the conclusion have been italicized.)

1. Should metal detectors be in place at every public school? 
2. Teachers were surveyed about their opinions. 
3. Many indicated that they never know what to expect from their students and thought that metal detectors would be a safe solution to unexpected circumstances. 
4. 57 percent of teachers agreed that metal detectors would help the school become a safer environment.  
5. Therefore, public schools should install metal detectors for safety.

What follows "Therefore' answers the question raised in statement (1). Thus, the conclusion is statement (5) ". . . public schools should instate metal detectors for safety." Highlight the conclusion!

Attention: An argument consists of a conclusion and the reasons that allegedly support it.

We then ask the question, "Why does the writer or speaker believe the conclusion?" The statements that answer that question are the reasons. In this particular case, the writer provides us with evidence as reasons. Statements (3) and (4) jointly provide the evidence; that is, together they provide support for the conclusion. Together they serve as the reason for the conclusion. Thus, we can paraphrase the reason as: A majority of surveyed teachers believe that metal detectors would help the school's level of safety.

Now, try to find the reasons in the following paragraph. Again, first find the conclusion, highlight it, and then ask the why question.

(1) Genetic screening of embryos is morally wrong. (2) People do not have the right to terminate a potential life just because it might not be the right sex, or may have a defect of some kind. (3) It cannot be said that a person's quality of life is severely changed by birth defect, or that parents should get to choose the sex of their baby.

There is no obvious indicator word for the conclusion in the paragraph, but the author is against genetic screening of embryos. The conclusion is:

"Genetic screening of embryos is morally wrong." Why does the author believe this? The major reason given is that "People do not have the right to decide to terminate a potential life based on a set of their preferred criteria." Sentence (3) provides additional support for this reason.

One of the best ways for you to determine whether you have discovered a reason is to try to play the role of the communicator. Put yourself in her position and ask yourself, "Why am I in favor of this conclusion that I am supporting?"

Try to put into your own words how you believe the communicator would answer this question. If you can paraphrase the answer, you have probably discovered her reasons. As you determine a communicator's reasoning structure, you should treat any idea that seems to be used to support her conclusion as a reason,
even if you do not believe it provides support for the conclusion. At this stage of critical thinking, you are trying to identify the argument. Because you want to be fair to the person who made the argument, it makes good sense to use the principle of charity. If the writer or speaker believed she was providing support
for the conclusion with some evidence or logic, then we should at least consider the reasoning. There will be plenty of time later to evaluate the reasoning carefully.

Words That Identify Reasons

As was the case with conclusions, there are certain words that will typically indicate that a reason will follow. Remember: The structure of reasoning is this, because of that. Thus, the word because, as well as words synonymous with and similar in function to it, will frequently signal the presence of reasons. A list of indicator words for reasons follows:

as a result of because of the fact that is supported by

for the reason that in view of because the evidence is

Kinds of Reasons

There are many different kinds of reasons, depending on the kind of issue. Many reasons will be statements that present evidence. By evidence, we mean specific information that someone uses to furnish "proof for something she is trying to claim is true. Communicators appeal to many kinds of evidence to "prove their point." These include "the facts," research findings, examples from real life, statistics, appeals to experts and authorities, personal testimonials, metaphors, and analogies. Different kinds of evidence are more appropriate
in some situations than in others, and you will find it helpful to developrules for yourself for determining what kinds of evidence are appropriate on given occasions.

You will often want to ask, "What kind of evidence is needed to support this claim?" and then determine whether such evidence has been offered. You should know that there are no uniform "codes of evidence" applicable to all cases of serious reasoning. A more detailed treatment of evidence appears in next lessons.

When a speaker or writer is trying to support a descriptive conclusion, the answer to the why question will typically be evidence. The following example provides a descriptive argument; try to find the author's reasons.

1. The number of people in the United States that are obese is growing quickly.
2. Studies indicate that over 25 percent of Americans are obese, not to mention the numbers of simply overweight Americans.

You should have identified the first statement as the conclusion. It is a descriptive statement about the large number of Americans who are obese. The rest of the paragraph presents the evidence—the reason for the conclusion.Remember: The conclusion itself will not be evidence; it will be a belief supported by evidence or by other beliefs.

In prescriptive arguments, reasons are typically either general, prescriptive statements or descriptive beliefs or principles. The use of these kinds of statements to support a conclusion in a prescriptive argument is illustrated in the following:

1. In today's society, there are all sorts of regulations on media, such as television ratings. 
2. Do these ratings allow for people to make educated decisions about what they will or will not watch? 
3. Do these ratings entice some people to watch a show even though they know they are not supposed to?  
4. How many parents actually go by the television ratings to deter their children from watching a show? 
5. More often than not, the television ratings do not prevent children from watching shows society believes that they are not mature enough to watch.
6. Television ratings are unenforceable guidelines. 
7. If one believes in the censorship of media for minors, items such as the V-chip should be used for this purpose rather than the simple tagged rating at the top of the screen.

The conflict here is about whether television ratings are desirable. The author argues that if society really is concerned about what children are watching, then it should implement the use of items such as the V-chip, as stated in sentence (7). Let us look for sentences that answer the question, "Why does the author believe this conclusion?" First, note that no evidence is presented. Sentences (2) and (3) jointly form one reason, a descriptive belief: The television ratings are not significant enough to affect change, and they may even encourage some to watch more harmful shows than they would have otherwise watched. The warnings are vague and can leave people thinking that the show may not be that "bad." Sentences (4) and (5) add a second reason: The television ratings do not really affect the choice of television shows for either parents or children. Sentence (6) provides a third reason: Television ratings cannot be enforced. There is no officer on duty other than parents, and if they do not agree with the ratings or are not around, the ratings are useless. These last two
reasons are general beliefs. If the argument were expanded by the author, the beliefs themselves might be supported by evidence in some form.

Keeping the Reasons and Conclusions Straight


Much reasoning is long and not very well organized. Sometimes a set of reasons will support one conclusion, and that conclusion will function as the main reason for another conclusion. Reasons may be supported by other reasons. In especially complicated arguments, it is frequently difficult to keep the structure straight in your mind as you attempt to critically evaluate what you have read. To overcome this problem, try to develop your own organizing procedure for keeping the reasons and conclusions separate and in a logical pattern.


We have mentioned a number of techniques for you to use in developing a clear picture of the reasoning structure. If some other technique works better for you, by all means use it. The important point is to keep the reasons and conclusions straight as you prepare to evaluate.

USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION

Once you have found the reasons, you need to come back to them again and again as you read or listen further. Their quality is crucial to a strong argument. The conclusion depends on their merit. Weak reasons create weak reasoning!

Reasons First, Then Conclusions

The first chapter warned you about the danger of weak-sense critical thinking. A warning signal that can alert you to weak-sense critical thinking should go off when you notice that reasons seem to be created (on the spot, even) only because they defend a previously held opinion. When someone is eager to share an opinion as if it were a conclusion, but looks puzzled or angry when asked for reasons, weak-sense critical thinking is the probable culprit.

Certainly, you have a large set of initial beliefs, which act as initial conclusions when you encounter controversies. As your respect for the importance of reasons grows, you will frequently expect those conclusions to stand or crumble on the basis of their support. Your strongest conclusions follow your reflection about the reasons and what they mean. 

Be your own censor in this regard. You must shake your own pan when looking for gold. Try to avoid "reverse logic" or "backward reasoning," whereby reasons are an afterthought, following the selection of your conclusion. Ideally, reasons are the tool by which conclusions are shaped and modified. 

"Fresh" Reasons and Your Growth 

We need to remind ourselves again and again how important it is to force ourselves to pay attention to "fresh" reasons, those that we have not previously considered. Critical thinkers are proud to be open to new forms of reasoning. Being fair to such reasons is tough, but rewarding. What makes this task so difficult is the power of our current opinions. They provide a starting point for our reaction to reasoning. We come to each conversation, essay, or lecture with a loyalty to the beliefs we already have. Thus, our existing beliefs can be an obstacle to our listening and learning. But at another level, we know there are thoughtful reasons that we have not yet encountered. For our personal growth, we have to give "fresh" reasons a real chance to speak to us.

Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking

When you are writing or speaking, you will want to keep your audience foremost in your plans. They need to be clear about what you conclude and why you are concluding it. Do not hide your conclusion and reasons; display them openly. Give the audience a clear opportunity to see what you intend. Thus, your task is to use words, sentences, paragraphs, and indicator words to illuminate the logical relationships in your argument.

Practice Exercises

Critical Question: What are the reasons?

First survey the passage and highlight its conclusion. Then ask the question, "Why?" and locate the reasons. Use indicator words to help. Keep the conclusions and the reasons separate. Try to paraphrase the reason; putting the reasons in your own words helps clarify their meaning and function.

Passage 1

Public swimming pools can be a health hazard. Many public pools are not able to obey the sanitation regulations and therefore allow for the contraction of waterborne bacteria. Studies have shown that only 60 percent of public pools are able to maintain the proper amount of chlorine in the water, allowing for those who use the pool to be infected. Many pool users have become ill after the use of a public swimming pool.

Passage 2

Schools all around the nation are forming community service programs. Should students be required to do community service? There are many drawbacks to requiring such service. Students will not be able to understand the concept of charity and benevolence if it is something they have to do. Forced charity seems contradictory to the concept of charity. If this concept loses value for the students because the service was

not a choice, they will then resent the idea of community service and not volunteer to do so at a later time in life. Furthermore, because this community service would be coerced, the students may not perform at a high level. They may feel they will do the bare minimum of what is required. The students may also be resentful or rude to the people they are helping, which would also hamper the progress of the community service. As you can see, forced community service may not be the best programming choice for schools.

Passage 3

In high school men's basketball and men's football usually dominate the Friday night schedule. Should it be that way? These games are significant to the high school experience, but not at the cost of die other sports in die school. Just because it has been a tradition does not mean that the format has to remain that way.

It is easier for most parents and other fans to make it out to the game on Friday nights. Therefore, it is easier for them to come see the men's basketball or men's football games. What about the girl's basketball team, or the swim team? Their games should not always be stuck on weekday afternoons and evenings. Their families often are not able to make it out to see them because most are working during the afternoons. The students who play these "secondary" sports are not getting a fair share of the spotlight; the schedule should change to accommodate these other sports.

Sample Responses

Passage 1

ISSUE: What makes public pools a health hazard ?

CONCLUSION: Inadequate sanitation.

REASONS: 

1. Sixty percent of public pools are not able to maintain proper chlorination levels.
2. Many people have gotten sick after using public pooh. 

Recall that we are looking for the support system for the conclusion. We ask ourselves: Why does this person claim that sanitation is causing a health hazard in pools? The conclusion is justified by two research findings; these findings constitute the reasons. An indicator word for the first reason is "studies have shown."

Passage 2

ISSUE: Should schools require community service!

CONCLUSION: NO, schools should not require community service.

REASONS: 

1. Forced charity makes little sense.   
   (SUPPORTING REASONS)

a. Required community service is a self-contradiction.What Are the Reasons?
b. Students will resent the idea of community service and choose not to do so later in life.
c. Students will not perform at a high level.:

               1. The students will only do the bare minimum, not what would most benefit the recipient.

               2. Students may be rude to those they are helping.

Why are we told that schools should not require community service? The answer to that question will be the author's reasons. The first reason is supported by a collection of examples and claims, all showing us that forced community service is a contradiction. Furthermore is the indicator word calling our attention to the second reason.

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY:

WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT

What Are the Reasons?

Once you have identified the issue and conclusion, you need to understand why an author has come to a certain conclusion. Reasons are the why. If the author provides good reasons, you might be persuaded to accept her conclusion. However, right now, we are simply concerned with identifying the reasons. Identifying

the reasons is the next step in deciding whether you should accept or reject the author's conclusion.