A Guide to Critical Reading: What Words or Phrase are Ambiguous?

The first three chapters of this book help you identify the basic structural elements in any message. At this point, if you can locate a writer's or speaker's conclusion and reasons, you are progressing rapidly toward the ultimate goal of forming your own rational decisions. Your next step is to put this structural picture into even clearer focus.

While identifying the conclusion and reasons gives you the basic visible structure, you still need to examine the precise meaning of these parts before you can react fairly to the ideas being presented. Now you need to pay special attention to the details of the language. Identifying the precise meaning of key words or phrases is an essential step in deciding whether to agree with someone's opinion. If you fail to check for the meaning of
crucial terms and phrases, you may react to an opinion the author never intended.

Let's see why knowing the meaning of a communicator's terms is so important.

Tourism is getting out of control. Tourism can be good for the economy, but it can also harm the locale and its residents. We need to do more to regulate tourism. If we keep allowing these people to do whatever they please, surely we as residents will suffer. Notice that it is very hard to know what to think about this argument until we know more about the kinds of regulations that the person has in mind. A quota for tourists? A set of rules about the behavior expected of tourists? Restrictions on the part of the neighborhood that tourists are allowed to visit? We just do not know what to think until we know more about these regulations the person is suggesting.

This example illustrates an important point: You cannot react to an argument unless you understand the meanings (explicit or implied) of crucial terms and phrases. How these are interpreted will often affect the acceptability of the reasoning. Consequently, before you can determine the extent to which you wish to accept one conclusion or another, you must first attempt to discover the precise meaning of the conclusion and the reasons. While their meaning typically appears obvious, it often is not. The discovery and clarification of meaning require conscious, step by- step procedures. This chapter suggests one set of such procedures. It focuses on the following question:

Critical Question: What words or phrases are ambiguous


The Confusing Flexibility of Words

Our language is highly complex. If each word had only one potential meaning about which we all agreed, effective communication would be more likely. However, most words have more than one meaning. Consider the multiple meanings of such words as freedom, obscenity, and happiness. These multiple meanings can create serious problems in determining the worth of an argument. For example, when someone argues that a magazine should not be published because it is obscene, you cannot evaluate the argument until you know what the writer means by "obscene." In this brief argument, it is easy to find the conclusion and the supporting reason, but the quality of the reasoning is difficult to judge because of the ambiguous use of obscene. A warning: We often misunderstand what we read or hear because we presume that the meaning of words is obvious.

Whenever you are reading or listening, force yourself to search for ambiguity; otherwise, you may simply miss the point. A term or phrase is ambiguous when its meaning is so uncertain in the context of the argument we are examining that we need further clarification before we can judge the adequacy of the reasoning. When any of us is ambiguous, we have not necessarily done something either unfair or improper. In fact, many documents, like constitutions, are intentionally left ambiguous so that the document can evolve as different
meanings of key terms become practical necessities. Indeed, because we rely on words to get our points across when we communicate, there is no way to avoid ambiguity. But what can and should be avoided is ambiguity in an argument. When someone is trying to persuade us to believe or do something, that
person has a responsibility to clarify any potential ambiguity before we consider the worth of the reasoning.

Locating Key Terms and Phrases

The first step in determining which terms or phrases are ambiguous is to use the stated issue as a clue for possible key terms. Key terms or phrases will be those terms that may have more than one plausible meaning within the context of the issue; that is, terms that you know must be clarified before you can decide to agree
or disagree with die communicator. To illustrate the potential benefit of checking the meaning of terminology in the stated issue, let's examine several issues:

1. Does TV violence adversely affect society?
2. Is the Miss America contest demeaning to women?
3. Is the incidence of rape in college residence halls increasing?

Attention: Ambiguity refers to the existence of multiple possible meanings for a word or phrase.

Each of these stated issues contains phrases that writers or speakers will have to make clear before you will be able to evaluate their response to the issue. Each of the following phrases is potentially ambiguous: "TV violence," "adversely affect society," "demeaning to women," and "incidence of rape." Thus, when you read an essay responding to these issues, you will want to pay close attention to how the author has defined these terms.

The next step in determining which terms or phrases are ambiguous is to identify what words or phrases seem crucial in determining how well the author's reasons support her conclusion; that is, to identify the key terms in
the reasoning structure. Once you locate these terms, you can then determine whether their meaning is ambiguous.

When searching for key terms and phrases, you should keep in mind why you are looking. Someone wants you to accept a conclusion. Therefore, you are looking for only those terms or phrases that will affect whether you accept the conclusion. So, look for them in the reasons and conclusion. Terms and phrases that are not included in the basic reasoning structure can thus be "dumped from your pan."

Another useful guide for searching for key terms and phrases is to keep in mind the following rule: The more abstract a word or phrase, the more likely it is to be susceptible to multiple interpretations. To avoid being unclear in our use of the term abstract, we define it here in the following way: A term becomes more
and more abstract as it refers less and less to particular, specific instances. Thus, the words equality, responsibility, pornography, and aggression are much more abstract than are the phrases "having equal access to necessities of life," "directly causing an event," "pictures of male and female genitals," and "doing deliberate
physical harm to another person." These latter phrases provide a much more concrete picture and are therefore less ambiguous.

You can also locate potential important ambiguous phrases by reverse roleplaying. Ask yourself, if you were to adopt a position contrary to the author's, would you choose to define certain terms or phrases differently? If so, you have identified a possible ambiguity. For example, someone who sees beauty pageants as
desirable is likely to define "demeaning to women" quite differently from someone who sees them as undesirable.

 

Checking for Ambiguity

You now know where to look for ambiguous terms or phrases. The next step is to focus on each term or phrase and ask yourself, "Do I understand its meaning?" In answering this very important question, you will need to overcome several major obstacles.

One obstacle is assuming that you and the author mean the same thing. Thus, you need to begin your search by avoiding "mind reading. " You need to get into the habit of asking, "What do you mean by that?" instead of, "I know just what you mean." A second obstacle is assuming that terms have a single, obvious definition.

Many terms do not. Thus, always ask, "Could any of the words or phrases have a different meaning?"

You can be certain you have identified an especially important unclear term by performing the following test. If you can express two or more alternative meanings for a term, each of which makes sense in the context of the

argument, and if the extent to which a reason would support a conclusion is affected by which meaning is assumed, then you have located a significant ambiguity. Thus, a good test for determining whether you have identified an important ambiguity is to substitute the alternative meanings into the reasoning structure and see whether changing the meaning makes a difference in how well a reason supports the conclusion.

USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION

The preceding paragraph deserves your full attention. It is spelling out a procedure for putting this critical question about ambiguity to work. Once you have followed the procedure, you can demonstrate to yourself or anyone else why the reasoning needs more work. Try as you might to want to believe what is being said, you just cannot, as a critical thinker, agree with the reasoning until the ambiguity that affects the reasoning is repaired.

Determining Ambiguity

Let's now apply the above hints to help us determine which key terms a communicator has left unclear. Remember: As we do this exercise, keep asking, "What does the author mean by that?" and pay particular attention to abstract terms. We will start with a simple reasoning structure: an advertisement.

OurBrand Sleep Aid: Works great in just 30 min.
ISSUE: What sleep aid should you buy ?
CONCLUSION: (implied) : Buy OurBrand Sleep Aid.
REASON: Works great in 30 min.

 The phrases "Buy OurBrand Sleep Aid" and "in 30 min" seem quite concrete and self-evident. But, how about "works great?" Is the meaning obvious? We think not. How do we know? Let's perform a test together. Could "works great" have more than one meaning? Yes. It could mean the pill makes you
drowsy. It could mean the pill completely knocks you out such that you will have difficulty waking up the next morning. Or it could have many other meanings. Isn't it true that you would be more eager to follow the advice of the advertisement if the pill worked great, meaning it works precisely as you want it to work? Thus, the ambiguity is significant because it affects the degree to which you might be persuaded by the advertisement.

Advertising is often full of ambiguity. Advertisers intentionally engage in ambiguity to persuade you that their products are superior to those of their competitors. Here are some sample advertising claims that are ambiguous. See if you can identify alternative, plausible meanings for the italicized words or phrases.

No-Pain is the extra-strength pain reliever.
Here is a book at last that shows you how to find and keep a good man.

In each case, the advertiser hoped that you would assign the most attractive meaning to the ambiguous words. Critical reading can sometimes protect you from making purchasing decisions that you would later regret.

Let's now look at a more complicated example of ambiguity. Remember to begin by identifying the issue, conclusion, and reasons. Resist the temptation to make note of the unclear meaning of any and all words. Only the ambiguity in the reasoning is crucial to critical thinkers.
We absolutely must put limits on tanning. Tanning is a substantial health risk with severe consequences. Studies have shown that those who tan are at a higher risk of skin diseases as a result of tanning.

Let's examine the reasoning for any words or phrases that would affect our willingness to accept it.

First, let's examine the issue for terms we will want the author to make clear. Certainly, we would not be able to agree or disagree with this author's conclusion until she has indicated what she means by "tanning," does she mean tanning outdoors or artificial tanning? Thus, we will want to check how clearly she has defined it in her reasoning.

Next, let's list all key terms and phrases in the conclusion and reasons: "health risk," "severe consequences," "studies have shown," "those who tan are at a higher risk," "skin diseases," and "we should put limits on tanning." Let's take a close look at a few of these to determine whether they could have different meanings that might make a difference in how we would react to the reasoning.

First, her conclusion is ambiguous. Exactly what does it mean to "put limits on tanning"? Does it mean to prevent people from using artificial tanning devices, or might it mean putting a limit on the amount of time spent tanning?
Before you could decide whether to agree with the speaker or writer, you would first have to decide what it is she wants us to believe.

Next, she argues that "those who tan are at a higher risk of skin diseases." We have already talked about how we are not sure what she means by "those who tan," but what does she mean by "skin diseases?" She could mean any number of irritations that can occur from sun exposure or she could be talking about something as severe as skin cancer. It is significant to know which of these she was addressing if she wanted to convince you of the dangers of tanning and her conclusion to limit it. Try to create a mental picture of what these phrases represent. If you can't, the phrases are ambiguous. If different images would cause you to react to the reasons differently, you have identified an important ambiguity.

Now, check the other phrases we listed above. Do they not also need to be clarified? You can see that if you accept this writer's argument without requiring her to clarify these ambiguous phrases, you will not have understood what it is you agreed to believe.

Context and Ambiguity
Writers and speakers only rarely define their terms. Thus, typically your only guide to the meaning of an ambiguous statement is the context in which the words are used. By context, we mean the writer's or speaker's background, traditional uses of the term within the particular controversy, and the words and
statements preceding and following the possible ambiguity. All three elements provide clues to the meaning of a potential key term or phrase.

If you were to see the term human rights in an essay, you should immediately ask yourself, "What rights are those?" If you examine the context and find that the writer is a leading member of the Norwegian government, it is a good bet that the human rights she has in mind are the rights to be employed, receive free health care, and obtain adequate housing. An American senator might mean something very different by human rights. She could have in mind freedoms of speech, religion, travel, and peaceful assembly. Notice that the two versions of human rights are not necessarily consistent. A country could guarantee one form of human rights and at the same time violate the other. You must try to clarify such terms by examining their context.

Writers frequently make clear their assumed meaning for a term by their arguments. The following paragraph is an example:

The amusement park has given great satisfaction to most of its customers. More than half of the people surveyed agreed that the park had a wide variety of games and rides and that they would return to the park soon.

 The phrase "give great satisfaction" is potentially ambiguous, because it could have a variety of meanings. However, the writer's argument makes clear that in this context, "give great satisfaction" means having a variety of games and rides.

Note that, even in this case, you would want some further clarification before you travel to this park, because "having a variety of games" is ambiguous. Wouldn't you want to know perhaps how many rides or games there were, or what some of them were? It is possible that while there is a wide variety of games, all of them are outdated or not popular anymore?


USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION

The critical question focusing on ambiguity provides you with a fair-minded basis for disagreeing with the reasoning. If you and the person trying to persuade you are using different meanings for key terms in the reasoning, you would have to work out those disagreements first before you could accept the
reasoning being offered to you.

Examine the context carefully to determine the meaning of key terms and phrases. If the meaning remains uncertain, you have located an important ambiguity. If the meaning is clear and you disagree with it, then you should be wary of any reasoning that involves that term or phrase.

Ambiguity, Definitions, and the Dictionary

It should be obvious from the preceding discussion that to locate and clarify ambiguity, you must be aware of the possible meanings of words. Meanings usually come in one of three forms: synonyms, examples, and what we will call "definition by specific criteria." For example, one could offer at least three different definitions of anxiety:

1. Anxiety is feeling nervous {synonym).
2. Anxiety is what the candidate experienced when he turned on the television
   to watch the election returns {example).
3. Anxiety is a subjective feeling of discomfort accompanied by increased sensitivity of the autonomic nervous system {specific criteria)

For critical evaluation of most controversial issues, synonyms and examples are inadequate. They fail to tell you the specific properties that are crucial for an unambiguous understanding of the term. Useful definitions are those that specify criteria for usage—and the more specific the better.

Where do you go for your definitions? One obvious and very important source is your dictionary. However, dictionary definitions frequently consist of synonyms, examples, or incomplete specifications of criteria for usage. These definitions often do not adequately define the use of a term in a particular essay. In such cases, you must discover possible meanings from the context of the passage, or from what else you know about the topic. We suggest you keep a dictionary handy, but keep in mind that the appropriate definition may not
be there.

Let's take a closer look at some of the inadequacies of a dictionary definition.
Examine the following brief paragraph.

The quality of education at this university is not declining. In my interviews, I found that an overwhelming majority of the students and instructors responded that they saw no decline in the quality of education here.

It is clearly important to know what is meant by "quality of education" in the above paragraph. If you look up the word quality in the dictionary, you will find many meanings, the most appropriate, given this context, being excellence or superiority. Excellence and superiority are synonyms for quality—and they are equally abstract. You still need to know precisely what is meant by excellence or superiority. How do you know whether education is high in quality or excellence? Ideally, you would want the writer to tell you precisely what behaviors she is referring to when she uses the phrase "quality of education." Can you think of some different ways that the phrase might be defined? The following list presents some possible definitions of quality of education:

average grade-point average of students
ability of students to think critically
number of professors who have doctoral degrees
amount of work usually required to pass an exam

Each of these definitions suggests a different way to measure quality; each specifies a different criterion. Each provides a concrete way in which the term could be used. Note also that each of these definitions will affect the degree to which you will want to agree with the author's reasoning. For example, if you believe that "quality" should refer to the ability of students to think critically, and most of the students in the interviews are defining it as how much work is required to pass an exam, the reason would not necessarily support the conclusion. Exams may not require the ability to think critically.

Thus, in many arguments you will not be able to find adequate dictionary definitions, and the context may not make the meaning clear. One way to discover possible alternative meanings is to try to create a mental picture
of what the words represent. If you cannot do so, then you probably have identified an important ambiguity. Let's apply such a test to the following example:

Our company has had many competent employees. If you join our staff, you will
start immediately at the rate we discussed with, of course, added benefits. I hope
you consider all these factors in making your employment decision.

This is clearly an argument to persuade someone to work at his or her place of employment. The reasons are the salary and "added benefits." Can you create a single clear mental picture of "added benefits?" We each have some such idea, but it is highly unlikely that the ideas are identical; indeed, they may be quite different. Do "added benefits" refer to health care insurance or a new corner office? For us to evaluate the argument, we would need to know more about the meaning the writer has for "added benefits." Thus, we have located an important ambiguity.

Ambiguity and Loaded Language

Ambiguity is not always an accident. Those trying to persuade you are often quite aware that words have multiple meanings. Furthermore, they know that certain of those meanings carry with them heavy emotional baggage. Words like sacrifice and justice have multiple meanings, and some of those meanings are loaded in the sense that they stimulate certain emotions in us. Anyone trying to use language to lead us by the heart can take advantage of these probable emotions.

For example, the American military officials who control prisons in Afghanistan and Guantanomo are eager to avoid the appearance that these prisons encourage a large number of suicides among the prisoners. Yet a large number of prisoners do take their own lives. The military have to count those deaths somehow. So they have created categories like "Self-inflicted Hazardous Incidents" that permit them to acknowledge the deaths without putting them into the category of suicides. Here the ambiguity of "Self-inflicted Hazardous Incidents" is far from accidental.

Political language is often loaded and ambiguous. For example, welfare is often how we refer to governmental help to those we don't like; when help from the government goes to groups we like, we call it a subsidy or an incentive. The following table consists of political terms and the intended emotional impact.

All the terms in the table are ambiguous. As critical thinkers, we must be sensitive to their intended emotional impact and the role of ambiguity in encouraging that impact. By searching for alternative meanings of terms such as reform, we can safeguard ourselves against easy emotional commitments to arguments we would otherwise question. After all, even the most dangerous political change is in some sense a "reform."

Norman Solomon's The Power of Babble provides a colorful illustration of how successful politicians use ambiguous language to persuade others. Note that Mr. Solomon has conveniently placed key ambiguous terms in alphabetical order for us.

America is back, and bipartisan—biting the bullet with competitiveness, diplomacy, efficiency, empowerment, end games, and environmentalism, along with faith in the founding Fathers, freedom's blessings, free markets and free peoples, and most of all, God. Our great heritage has held the line for human rights, individual initiative, justice, kids, leadership, liberty, loyalty, mainstream values, the marketplace, measured responses, melting pots, the middle class, military reform, moderates, modernization, moral standards, national security, and Old Glory. Opportunity comes from optimism, patriotism, peace through strength, the people, pluralism, and points of light. Pragmatism and the power of prayer make for principle while the private sector protects the public interest. Realism can mean recycling, self-discipline, and the spirit of '76, bring stability and standing tall for strategic interests and streamlined taxation. Uncle Sam has been undaunted ever since Valley Forge, with values venerated by veterans; vigilance, vigor, vision, voluntarism, and Western values, (p. 3)

Ambiguity and Your Own Writing and Speaking

Although most of this chapter is addressed to you as a critical reader and listener, it is also extremely relevant to improved writing and speaking. Effective communicators strive for clarity. They review what they intend to say several times, looking for any statements that might be ambiguous.

Look back at the section on "Locating Key Terms and Phrases" (p. 39).Use the hints given there for finding important ambiguity to revise your own efforts to communicate. For instance, abstractions that are ambiguous can be clarified by providing specific criteria for the use of the abstraction or by concrete illustrations, conveying the meaning you intend. Pay special attention to your own reasons and conclusions; try to rid them of ambiguity out of respect for your audience. When you fear  ambiguity of expression, carefully define your terms.

Thinking about the characteristics of your intended audience can help you decide where ambiguities need to be clarified. A specialized audience may adequately understand jargon or specific abstractions that would be very ambiguous to a general audience. Remember that your audience will probably not struggle for a long time with your meaning. If you confuse a member of your audience, you will probably lose him quickly. If you never regain his attention, then you have failed in your task as a communicator.

Take another look at the previous section discussing the burden of responsibility surrounding the use of ambiguity. It is you the writer or speaker who must bear that burden; it is you who is attempting to convince someone else.

Summary

You cannot evaluate an essay until you know the communicator's intended meaning of key terms and phrases as well as alternative meanings they could conceivably have had in the context of the argument. You can find important clues to potential ambiguity in the statement of the issue and can locate key words and phrases in the reasons and conclusions. Because many authors fail to define their terms and because many key terms have multiple meanings, you must search for possible ambiguity. You do this by asking the questions, "What could be meant?" and "What is meant by the key terms?" Once you have completed the search, you will know four very important components of the reasoning:

1. the key terms and phrases;
2. which of these are adequately defined;
3. which of these possess other possible definitions, which if substituted,
   would modify your reaction to the reasoning; and
4. which of these are ambiguous within the context of the argument.

Practice Exercises:

Critical Question: What words or phrases are ambiguous?

In the following passages, identify examples of ambiguity. Try to explain why the examples harm the reasoning.

Passage 1

School dress codes are limits put on inappropriate clothing to help keep the learning environment focused. It can be quite a distraction for students if a classmate has inappropriate clothing. The use of a dress code during school is not preventing freedom of expression. The dress code still allows for students to choose what they wear as long as it is not deemed inappropriate, unlike required uniform dress codes.

Passage 2

We should treat drug use in the same way we treat speech and religion, as a fundamental right. No one has to ingest any drug he does not want, just as no one has to read a particular book. The only reason the state assumes control over such matters is to subjugate its citizens—by shielding them from temptations as
befits children.

Passage 3

Note: This passage is adapted from an opinion delivered by Chief Justice Warren Burger in a Supreme Court response concerning the constitutionality of a Georgia obscenity statute.

We categorically disapprove the theory, apparently adopted by the trial judge, that obscene, pornographic films acquire constitutional immunity from state regulation simply because they are exhibited for consenting adults only. This holding was properly rejected by the Georgia Supreme Court. . . . In particular, we hold that there are legitimate state interests at stake in stemming the tide of commercialized obscenity, even assuming it is feasible to enforce effective safeguards against exposure to juveniles and passersby. Rights and interests other than those of the advocates are involved. These include the interest of the public in the quality of life and the total community environment, the tone of commerce in the great city centers, and possibly, the public safety itself. . .

The sum of experience, including that of the past two decades, affords an ample basis for legislatures to conclude that a sensitive, key relationship of human existence, central to family life, community welfare and the development of human personality, can be debased and distorted by crass commercial exploitation
of sex.

Sample Responses

Passage 1

ISSUE: Should schools have dress codes ?
CONCLUSION: Yes, schools should have dress codes
REASONS:

1. Certain dress codes keep the learning environment focused.
2. The school is not preventing freedom of expression by implementing a dress cod

What are the key phrases in this reasoning? They are: "dress codes," "inappropriate clothing," and "freedom of expression." You would first want to determine the meaning of each of these phrases. Is it clear what is meant
by inappropriate clothing? No. The limited context provided fails to reveal an adequate definition. If inappropriate clothing refers to the cut of skirts or to clothing with obscenities printed on them, wouldn't you be more likely to accept the reasoning than if the author included wearing sandals? Can you tell from the argument whether the author is referring to whatever the administration deems inappropriate or only to a few standard dress code issues commonly seen in schools? To be able to agree or to disagree with the author requires in this instance a more careful definition of what is meant by "inappropriate clothing." Notice that "dress codes" and "freedom of expression" need further clarification before you can decide whether to agree with the author.

Passage 2
ISSUE: Should the state regulate drug use?
CONCLUSION: Drug use should not be regulated by the state.
REASONS:

1. Just as freedom of speech and religion, drug use is a fundamental right.
2. State control subjugates citizens by not permitting them to take responsibility for voluntary act.

What are the key phrases in this reasoning? They are: "drug use," "fundamental right," and "subjugate citizens." You would first want to determine the meaning of each of these phrases. Is it clear what is meant by drug use?
No. The limited context provided fails to reveal an adequate definition. If drug use refers to the ingestion of drugs that are not considered highly addictive, such as marijuana, wouldn't you be more likely to accept the reasoning than if the author included heroin within her definition of drugs? Can you tell from the argument whether the author is referring to all drugs or only to a subset of currently regulated drugs? To be able to agree or to disagree with the author requires in this instance a more careful definition of what is meant by "drug use." Notice that "fundamental right" and "subjugate citizens" need further clarification before you can decide whether to agree with the author.


What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous?

Once you have identified an author's argument, you need to identify key words or phrases within that reasoning that might have alternative meanings. More importantly, you need to determine whether the author explicitly uses one of those definitions. If she does not, and if one of those meanings alters your acceptance of
the conclusion, you have identified an important ambiguity. Identifying ambiguous words and phrases is the next important step in determining whether you will accept or reject the conclusion.